Does Bureaucracy Remains The Essential Core of Public Administration in The Practice of New Public Management?

Does Bureaucracy Remains The Essential Core of Public Administration in The Practice of New Public Management? Introduction The changing role on how the government should act in order to improve and guarantee an adequate public service delivery has come to an era where the concept of New Public Management (NPM) is introduced to replace the practice of so called ‘red tape bureaucracy. The concept suggests new management techniques and practices that involving market type mechanisms related to private sector practices in order to bring changes to the management of government in making public service delivery. The reforms try to redefine the role and character of government institutions to be more market and private sector oriented. The reform efforts have been commenced first by developed countries from the late 1970s to the 1980s, and then followed by developing and transitional countries in recent years (Larbi, 2006). The economic crisis in developed countries led to the search of new ways in managing and delivering public services and redefining the states role. Similar thing also occurred to developing countries that was experiencing economic and fiscal crisis that led to the rethinking of state-led development that involving bigger size, functions, and the cost of state and its bureaucracy. The idea is how to strongly endorse the market and competition to the private and voluntary sectors and leaving the practice of strong state where everything is controlled and done by the state. However, the idea of NPM has raise a question of whether bureaucracy should still exist or, even more, would still be the essential core element of public administration. The paper will discuss about this question and find out what would be the answer. The outline of this paper will firstly discuss about the essence of bureaucracy in the practice of public administration. Afterward, it will introduce what and how does the NPM works in the practice of organising and managing public service. Finally, this paper will analyse whether bureaucracy would still be the essential core of public administration although NPM is being implemented. What Is Bureaucracy? Common citizens might just think that bureaucracy is a burden in public administration because of its inefficiency, long chain of decision making, self interest, and other bothersome reason that makes it undesirable form of administration. In the United States, public bureaucracy has gain wide scepticism and reached a high point as a major theme in the Reagan administration. The president contempt on bureaucracy was supported by public opinion polls, which had been detecting a widespread conviction that the government is wasteful and ineffective, and much of the concern aimed on public agencies and their employees as the major part of the problem (Milward and Rainey, 1983). On the contrary, there are also views that think bureaucracy in more positive term with their own evidence. For instance, merit based bureaucracy can fosters economic growth in developing countries (Evans and Rauch, 1999). It can also contribute to the effort of poverty reduction (Henderson et al, 2003). Furthermore, bureaucratic rules are considered to have a contribution in promoting democratic equality because those rules do not make differentiation of wealth and other resources among citizens that they serve. These two standpoints, negative and positive, about bureaucracy forced us to understand more about the substance of the so called â€Å"Weberian† state structures. In the view of public administration, bureaucracy means much more than those negative characteristics mentioned above because the term â€Å"bureaucracy† in serious administrative literature mentioning a general, formal structure elements of organisation, particularly government organisation (Stillman, 2000). The most comprehensive, classic formulation of the characteristics of bureaucracy was generally acknowledged as the work of a German scientist, Max Weber. He pioneered the term â€Å"bureaucracy† by saying that â€Å"bureaucracy is the normal way that legal rational authority appears in institutional form, it holds a central role in ordering and controlling modern society, also it is superior to any other form in precision, in stability, in stringency of its discipline and in its reliability†. Weber thought that bureaucracy is indispensable to maintaining civilisation in modern society. He suggested that although a lot of people are saying about the negativ e views of bureaucracy, it would be impossible to think that administrative work can be carried out in any field without the existence of officials working in offices. Weber noted three of the most important major elements of the formal structure of bureaucracy, which are the division of labour, hierarchical order, and impersonal rules. Firstly, specialisation of labour means that all work in bureaucracy should be divided into units that will be done individuals or groups of individuals that has competency in accomplishing those tasks. In other words, the specialisation of labour brings out the idea of professionalism in administrative bureaucracy. Secondly, the hierarchical order in bureaucracy that is meant to separate superiors from sub ordinates in order to recognised different authority, responsibility, and privileges. It also meant as a base for remuneration of employees and a structure that will enable a system of promotion to the employees. Thirdly, impersonal rules that form the means of a bureaucratic world. It limits the bureaucrats in any opportunities for arbitrariness and personal favouritism because their choices are restrained by l egal bureaucratic rules that provide systematic controls of sub ordinates by superiors. Those major elements of bureaucracy derived from what is known as The Weberian ideal type, which suggested four revolutional thinking in public administration. First is the concept of recruitment for the officials which is not supposed to be based on personal relationship but more to a merit based recruitment. Second is the point of view that servants should give their loyalty to the community not to individuals or groups. Third is the mentality aspect of the servants where they are pressured in improving public welfare so they have to eliminate the practice that give opportunity for rent seeking and fraud, which will inflict the public welfare. Last concept of ideal type is that employment should be subject to job performance not on political support. The Concept of New Public Management New initiatives introduce new management technique, which include not only structural changes but also attempts to change both process and roles of public sector management. Wide drafts of initiative and change processes in the UK public services have taken place since the 1980s (Ashburner et al, 1994). Furthermore, a survey conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in early 1990s has concluded that new management techniques and practices that involving market type mechanisms associated with the private for profit sector would bring changes in countries public management that have wide governance, economic and institutional environments (OECD, 1993a). Those technique and practice changes have then being labelled as the New Public Management (NPM) or the new managerialism (Ferlie et al, 1996). The search for new management technique in public sector administration was initially forced by some occurrence that happened worldwide. The first wave for reforms came up as a result of economic and fiscal crisis, political change, and criticism on over extension of the state. The next wave for reforms were mainly because of the role of donors, improvement in information technology, and pressures of globalisation that strongly promoted competition among countries. Nevertheless, the concept of NPM still need to be clearly defined of what the new public management actually is, what made it distinct to be said of moving away from traditional public administration. The attempts to overview what kind of practice should be done in implementing NPM noted that there are at least four new public management models (Ferlie et al, 1996) that can distinguish it with the traditional public administration. The models meant to be the initial attempt to build the typology of new public management ideal types. The first model is The Efficiency Drive that known as the earliest model to emerge. It represented a model that tried to make public sector more like businesses, which is led by high importance of efficiency. It increased attention to financial control, extension of audit, deregulation of the labour market, empowerment of less bureaucratic and more entrepreneurial management, and a greater role for non public sector providers. This first model of NPM sees public sector as a problem not solution because it was wasteful, over bureaucratic, and underperformed. The second model is Downsizing and Decentralisation on the management of public sector organisations. This model implemented some general organisational change, which include staff downsizing, increased contracting out, and increased decentralisation strategy. The model tried to represent public sector in facing issues about their replacement with the market. The third one called In Search of Excellence that had strong highlight on organisational culture. It define NPM as techniques and practices in shaping public sector organisational culture by promoting and forming values, rites, and symbols to show people how to behave at work. The fourth and last model called Public Service Orientation. This model tried to combine private and public sector management ideas by adopting private sector practices. It takes ideas from the private sector to be applied in the public sector organisation. The rise of Total Quality Management in order to achieve excellence in public service deliveries can be noted as one of the implementation for this model. Overall, there seems to be only two core elements that exist in the concept of NPM. The first one is managerialism and the other one is marketisation and competition (Osborne and Gaebler, 1992). Managerialism includes the practice of decentralisation of authority, devolving budget and financial control, delayering and downsizing public sector organisations, implementing performance management, and forming executive agencies to do specific tasks in public services. While marketisation and competition stressed on the practice of contracting out, charging for public services, focusing on quality, and changing employment relationship. Larbi (2006) also mentioned those two core elements in a detailed table, which is also adapted from Hood (1991). However, the market type mechanisms associated with private for profit sector, which is the life blood of NPM, also have a challenge to answer that what if the market fails. It comes to another perspective of NPM in anticipating market failure, which is regulating. The idea is quite paradox because if we discuss about new public management reform, usually it will talk about de-regulation and not re-regulation, but the state has to face the reality that the market will not always succeed. This where regulation is meant to, being an instrument to impose outcomes which would not be reached by the operation of free market forces and private legal rights (Ogus, 1994). Regulation meant to make the market works more efficient or make the monopoly provider to operate as if there were a competition. Nevertheless, the practice of how to regulate has also been an interesting topic of whether in the form of state control or on the basis of giving incentives. Where Bureaucracy Stands In the New Public Management? After reviewing the definition of bureaucracy and the practice of new public management, we have to answer two questions that arise in the beginning of this paper. The first question is whether bureaucracy would still exist in the implementation of NPM or otherwise should be abolish at all. The second question, as continuation from the first one if the result is yes, where does it stand in the NPM, would it supposed to be the core elements too? The answer for the first question supposed to be yes, bureaucracy would still exists despite the emerging implementation on New Public Management. There are at least two reasons that can explain why bureaucracy will still exist. First of all, Weber suggested that bureaucracy can serve any master. This is in the meaning of whatever the form of a government, whether it is an authoritarian or democratic, bureaucracy would still be relevant. The facts that can be seen as evidence is what happened around the mid-1990s where ideas derived from neo-liberal economics began to falter as policy guides to economic development. A number of processes and events were responsible for this. The World Bank (1993, 1997) finally began to recognize the positive role that states could play. It became clear that the concept of the minimal state had theoretical flaws and led to policies that could be shattering for growth, most visibly in Eastern Europe (Henderson, 1998). Nevertheless, the Washington Cons ensus came under pressure as a consequence of inappropriate policy responses to the East Asian economic crisis (Chang, 2001). The recent writing by Chang (2002) revealed that the now developed world, including its most neo-liberal exponents, Britain and the United States did not pursue free market policies as their roads to riches, seems destined to advance this process. The second reason is the Weberian perspective actually does not negate the positive effects of strengthening market institutions, but it does postulate that bureaucratically structured public organizations, using their own distinct set of decision making procedures, are a necessary complement to market based institutional arrangements (Evans and Rauch, 1999). Then the second question, what about its significance in the NPM. More precisely, would it still be the core element in the practice of NPM. There are some arguments that we can use to answer this question. As noted before, Weber argued that public administrative organisations, which are characterised by meritocratic recruitment and a predictable long term career rewards, will be more effective at facilitating capitalist growth than other forms of state organisation. This hypothesis certainly cannot be dismissed just because of the fact that people who call themselves bureaucrats have engaged in rent seeking and fraud activity, or that corrupt governments have undermined economic growth (Evans and Rauch, 1999). Henderson et al (2003) explained in their paper that meritocratic recruitment can be expected to lead to organisational effectiveness because of several reasons. Firstly, it can ensures that staff has, at the very least, a minimal level of competency to fulfil job requirements. Secondly, it tends to encourage organisational coherence and an organisational spirit, where it is expected that this will eventually help to raise the motivation of staff. Finally, higher levels of identification with colleagues and the organisation help to raise the levels of shared norms and increase the intangible costs of engaging in corrupt practices. Moreover, bureaucracies that offer rewarding long term careers have greater possibility to perform well because it encourages more competent people to join the organisation, which, in turn, further increases organisational coherence and makes attempts to conduct corrupt practices by individuals will be less attractive because the costs of being found out ar e very high. Another argument comes from an empirical study, which is written by Evans and Rauch (1999), to test the significant correlation between bureaucratic effects of the Weberian State Structure with economic growth. Evans and Rauch constructed a â€Å"Weberianness Scale† that tried to measure the degree to which core state agencies in various countries were characterised by meritocratic recruitment and offered rewarding long term careers. After that, they compute the scores on the scale for 35 semi industrial and poor countries. Then, they analysed the correlation of these scores to the total growth of real GDP per capita in those countries from 1970 to 1990, and found out that there is a strong and significant correlation between the â€Å"Weberianness Scale† score and economic growth on those respective countries. Furthermore, they also analysed and concluded that the East Asian countries, which have higher â€Å"Weberianness Scale† score and economic growth than A frican countries, has demonstrated a high performing key institutional element of the scale that resulted in economic growth. Almost similar arguments also came from James Tobin, the winner of Nobel Prize for Economics in 1981. He observed that the rapid growth of the public sector in the United States had actually accompanied the greatest economic advances of any country in history, and that he knows of no evidence that government spending and growth are responsible for current economic difficulties. These arguments should at least give us a hint that bureaucracy would remains to be the core element in public administration. Conclusion Critiques about inefficient, red tape, and waste bureaucracy has raise an idea to abolish and make it as minimum as it can in order to provide and improve public welfare. This has lead to the concept of making business-like public sector, where it is assumed that the practice will bring goodness to public welfare. However, it has been revealed that the oversimplified calls on business-like public sector, which impose free market approach, have eventually being falter. This has made some modification on the practice of New Public Management. Some arguments have shown that bureaucracy should remains as the core element in the practice of NPM. It is required not just to anticipate market failures but also to make sure that the market, especially for monopolistic public service, would feel that there is a competition, through establishing sets of regulations. Moreover, empirical study has proved that the role of bureaucracy is actually significant for the economic growth. Thus, there are strong reasons not just to put bureaucracy in the practice of NPM, but also make it as an essential part of the New Public Management.

Organized Crime Essays -- International Drug Smuggling

Organized crime is often described similarily by groups like government, the press and popular opinion. This similar definition is described through the knowledge people have gained from pop-culture movies, television shows, magazines, novels and stories from newspaper articles. Often these newspaper articles are written by authors who have little more knowledge on the structure of organized crime then what their favorite Sopranos episode dictates. It is extremely rare in today's society that somone who has an opinion on organized crime (which is almost everyone) has gained this opinion through first-hand experience (Finckenauer, p. 63). The problem with this narrow view of organized crime is that it fails to encompass the real issues/problems that truly define organized crime, therefore not allowing us as a society to fix the problems of and associated with organized crime. Stereotypes that have been made about organized crime through these pop-culture icons must be addressed and challenged by researchers as they aim to fix the definition of organized crime in the minds of the public, press, and government. Fixing society's understanding of organized crime is, as we have learned, the first and possibly most important step in controlling organized crime in our society. The view of organized crime including acts such as, international drug smuggling, for example, is organized crime often being described as a; "highly structured and organized operation with verticle lines of responsibility and communication." (Cromwell, p.251) These views are based on the idea that when large amounts of money are involved there must be a high level of organization. This however is not always the case as studies have found very little ... ... such criminal acts. By broadening our definition to not only support our out-dated and pop-culture influenced view we can better understand how organized crime has been functioning and flourishing as a group practice, and not as a hiearcial organized structure. Organized crime has been functioning and flourishing and is estimated to bring in over $1 trillion dollars annually (Galeotti, p.2). By changing our definition of organized crime we can better understand the people involved, viewing them as part of our society, and come to a better solution of how to stop organized crime groups from forming, and committing serious crimes. This will allow governments and law enforcement groups to better tackle the problem of organized crime, and not waste countless resources searching for answers and basing their actions in a narrow definition that is no longer valid. Organized Crime Essays -- International Drug Smuggling Organized crime is often described similarily by groups like government, the press and popular opinion. This similar definition is described through the knowledge people have gained from pop-culture movies, television shows, magazines, novels and stories from newspaper articles. Often these newspaper articles are written by authors who have little more knowledge on the structure of organized crime then what their favorite Sopranos episode dictates. It is extremely rare in today's society that somone who has an opinion on organized crime (which is almost everyone) has gained this opinion through first-hand experience (Finckenauer, p. 63). The problem with this narrow view of organized crime is that it fails to encompass the real issues/problems that truly define organized crime, therefore not allowing us as a society to fix the problems of and associated with organized crime. Stereotypes that have been made about organized crime through these pop-culture icons must be addressed and challenged by researchers as they aim to fix the definition of organized crime in the minds of the public, press, and government. Fixing society's understanding of organized crime is, as we have learned, the first and possibly most important step in controlling organized crime in our society. The view of organized crime including acts such as, international drug smuggling, for example, is organized crime often being described as a; "highly structured and organized operation with verticle lines of responsibility and communication." (Cromwell, p.251) These views are based on the idea that when large amounts of money are involved there must be a high level of organization. This however is not always the case as studies have found very little ... ... such criminal acts. By broadening our definition to not only support our out-dated and pop-culture influenced view we can better understand how organized crime has been functioning and flourishing as a group practice, and not as a hiearcial organized structure. Organized crime has been functioning and flourishing and is estimated to bring in over $1 trillion dollars annually (Galeotti, p.2). By changing our definition of organized crime we can better understand the people involved, viewing them as part of our society, and come to a better solution of how to stop organized crime groups from forming, and committing serious crimes. This will allow governments and law enforcement groups to better tackle the problem of organized crime, and not waste countless resources searching for answers and basing their actions in a narrow definition that is no longer valid.

The Reality of Imagination

The Reality of the Imagination Rebecca Smarcz Poetry is a dichotomy of imagination and reality. It requires metaphors and abstract symbols as representatives of the poet’s imagination. These metaphors and symbols are depicted through concrete images in order to correlate with the reality that the reader and poet exist in. According to Roy Harvey Pearce’s essay Wallace Stevens: The Life of the Imagination, Stevens refers to himself as an â€Å"exponent of the imagination† and â€Å"As poet, he [Stevens] is†¦an ‘exponent of the imagination’†¦But, as human being, he finds that he must hold the imagination to concrete reality† (Pearce 117).Pearce, along with many other critics, believe that the diverging relationship between an imaginative world and reality is one of Stevens’ biggest concerns and struggles in his poetry. This battle between imagination and reality existed for Stevens in poetry as well as in his everyday life. In a letter to Ronald Lane Latimer in March 1937, Stevens wrote, â€Å"I have been trying to see the world about me both as I see it and as it is† (Beckett 117).This struggle between imagination and reality is extremely apparent in Stevens’ poetry, specifically in Evening Without Angels and A Fading of the Sun, both of which were published in the 1936 volume Ideas of Order. Stevens contrasts images of light and dark, sun and night, in Evening Without Angels and A Fading of the Sun in order to illustrate a dichotomy between imagination and reality as well as truth and individual perception.While Stevens establishes a strict opposing relationship in the beginnings of these specific poems, by the conclusion of each of the poems he recognizes that both imagination and truth are necessary components of art and life by the uniting imagination and reality as complements of each other, rather than divergent elements. He uses poetry as a medium to address the relationship between i magination and truth, and these poems are no exception. In the very beginning of A Fading of the Sun Stevens directly calls upon the audience to question the extremity between light and dark, and in turn, the conflict between imagination and reality.He begins with, â€Å"Who can think of the sun costuming clouds,† which directly asks the audience to imagine (Fading 1). The verb â€Å"to think,† while it can also convey an action dealing with factual knowledge, Stevens clearly uses it in this circumstance in an imaginative sense by the sun image he asks the audience to think of. The sun implies bright, openness, and light; therefore, it serves as a symbol for the imagination. With imagination there is room for interpretation and variations among individual imaginations.The double meaning of the verb â€Å"to think,† the factual versus the imaginative meaning, inherently adds to the struggle Stevens faces regarding imagination and reality when he writes poetry. Fu rthermore, Stevens establishes an opposing relationship between light and dark throughout the first three stanzas of A Fading of the Sun. In the first stanza Stevens calls upon the audience to imagine â€Å"the sun costuming clouds. † The image of the sun â€Å"costuming,† masking, or covering up the clouds is unrealistic and the reader can only rely on his imagination to picture this image (Fading 1).The sun can never cover up the clouds because of their location in the earth’s atmosphere; they are always in front of the sun. Furthermore, due to their density and chemical makeup the sun’s light will always be muffled when it tries to penetrate even the thinnest cloud. If the audience does go along with Stevens’ image of the sun masking the clouds, they imagine a scene in which they can only see the brightness of the sun with no shadows or darkness, just pure light, pure imagination.However, with this intense sunlight, â€Å"people are shaken† (Fading 2). Here, Stevens comments on the issue of poetry and life only having imagination, completely excluding truth and reality. People are uneasy with too much sunlight and imagination, with no reality to balance it out. In contrast to poetry and life having too much sunlight and imagination, Stevens also negatively remarks upon life and poetry being solely centered on darkness and reality. Darkness implies truth and definiteness because there is only one color with darkness: black.There is sureness in this color, there is no room for other interpretations, there is just black, just darkness, just reality and truth. Too much darkness causes people to â€Å"cry for help† and makes their bodies â€Å"grow[s] suddenly cold† (Fading 5, 7). People become lifeless and succumb to unhappiness when there is no imagination in their lives. With this opaque darkness â€Å"The tea is bad, bread sad,† ultimately, Stevens implies that imagination is like sustenance for the mind (Fading 8). Food gives energy to the body and is necessary for survival just as imagination is necessary for survival.Stevens tarnishes tea and bread in order to relate how the body becomes tarnished when it is only surrounded by reality and when humans exists without imagination. Without food â€Å"people die;† therefore, without imagination they cannot live their lives to the fullest (Fading 10). Moreover, Stevens affirms that it is impossible to be happy â€Å"without a book. † He states that it is a lie â€Å"If joy shall be without a book† (Fading 11). Here, Stevens uses the book as a symbol for art, poetry, and imagination. Life without art and imagination will be dark and unhappy; it is like a sky without sun.Imagination needs to be a part of poetry and life, but although this may be true for Stevens in these first stanzas, Stevens eventually settles upon the notion that reality must be a component in poetry and life as well. Stevens searches for a balance between light and dark, imagination and reality, in this poem and in life and he finds that balance in the last stanza. Stevens erases his prior negative outlook on the diverging relationship of imagination and reality by creating an image of the sun and night working together.The â€Å"pillars of the sun, / Supports of night† is a direct reference to Stevens’ realization of the harmonizing combination of imagination and truth (Fading 16-17). The sun symbolizes imagination while the night represents reality. With these sun pillars supporting the night people live a full life with tea and wine that are good and bread and meat that are sweet. Stevens creates this image of the sun and night transcending their opposing differences in order to establish the idea that imagination and reality are important parts to life and poetry.When Stevens combines the image of the sun, representing imagination, with the night, symbolizing reality, â€Å"The wine is good. The bread, / †¦ is sweet† (Fading 18-19). Although Stevens also refers to tea and meat as being edible and good with the unification of imagination of reality, he forces the reader to focus solely on the wine and bread images by placing the wine and bread in the same line of the poem. Stevens’ inclusion of the wine and bread images seems to be a clear religious reference to Jesus Christ in which Jesus offers his body and blood to his disciples in the form of bread and wine.When Jesus offered these gifts to his disciples his disciples needed faith and imagination to truly believe that these real, tangible items were indeed the body and blood of Jesus Christ. This idea that faith is needed in order to transcend the reality of these items correlates with the relationship between imagination and reality that Stevens addresses throughout this poem. Furthermore, with any religion, there is a necessary balance between faith, imagination, and belief, with reality, certainty, a nd truth. An individual must believe in his faith of the afterlife but he must also not ignore the reality of his life on earth.This last stanza supports Lucy Beckett’s claim of â€Å"Stevens’ constant devotion to reality, his belief that the phrase ‘the truth of the imagination’ has a meaning only with respect to the imagination’s relation with reality. † Although Stevens’ poetry is largely based in his imaginative world, Beckett notes that Stevens realizes his â€Å"responsibility† as a poet to balance imagination and reality (Beckett 42). Stevens’ even states in his essay ‘Effects of Analogy’ that when writing poetry The poet is constantly concerned with two theories.One relates to the imagination as a power within him not so much to destroy reality at will as to put it to his own uses†¦The second theory relates to the imagination as a power within him to have such insights into reality (Beckett 43). In A Fading of the Sun Stevens uses his power as a poet to combine reality with imagination and he faces the same task in Evening Without Angels. Stevens, once again, addresses the relationship between imagination and reality in his poem Evening Without Angels and immediately calls attention to the natural separation between imagination and reality in the beginning lines of the poem.He opens the poem with the question, â€Å"Why seraphim like lutanists arranged / Above the trees? † directly placing seraphim, or angels, on a separate level from the trees (Evening 1-2). Stevens immediately creates this image of separation between imaginative beings, seraphim, and the trees, which represent the earth and reality. He creates this separation between imagination and reality in this first stanza in order to set up the conflict between the two components throughout the poem, and then, just as he does in A Fading of the Sun, concludes the poem with the complementary combination of bot h imagination and reality.Furthermore, Stevens directly questions the audience in these opening lines in order to force the audience to wonder why there has to be a separation of imagination and reality in poetry and in life. In other words, Stevens sparks a wondering in the audience in the beginning of the poem and throughout the poem brings the audience on journey to discover the true balance of imagination and reality. Stevens continues to question the dichotomy between imagination and reality by issuing the question in the third stanza, â€Å"Was the sun concoct for angels or for men? (Evening 10). Here, the sun is representative of the imagined world, specifically heaven. Stevens questions whether the imagined world is only reserved for imagined things, like angels, or if men can be a part of the imagined world as well. Later on in the poem, Stevens declares that men, indeed, â€Å"are men of sun;† they are part of the imagined world (Evening 14). However, before Steven s comes to this realization he wants the audience to think about man’s place in the imagined world.After he questions whether the imagined world is for men or for angels he states, â€Å"Sad men made angels of the sun, and of / The moon they made their own attendant ghosts† (Evening 11-12). From this passage, Stevens seems to be affirming his pro-imagination stance. When men only place angels, or imagined things in their imagination, instead of incorporating imagination into their own human reality, they become unhappy. Again, Stevens utilizes the image of the moon in order to symbolize reality; therefore, when men do not have any sun or imagination in their lives, they become ghosts in their reality.Ghosts are translucent figures without any substance to them, so without imagination men exist in their reality without any substance; they are empty beings. Therefore, in order to have substance in poetry and in life imagination must be included. In a letter that Stevens wrote to Latimer in 1936 he states, â€Å"There is a point at which intelligence destroys poetry† (H. Stevens 20). Intelligence, fact, truth, and reality, according to Stevens, obstruct and hinder the imagination that exists in poetry. Stevens, when writing poetry consciously limited reality’s influence and focused on the art of imagination.However, while imagination is obviously important to Stevens, just as he does in A Fading of the Sun, he also stresses the importance of a balance between imagination and reality in the last few stanzas of Evening Without Angels. He discusses how â€Å"The motions of the mind† often times â€Å"Desire for rest† (Evening 21, 24). Stevens associates these â€Å"motions of the mind† with â€Å"Light† while the need for rest is associated with darkness, clearly implying that the imagination needs to be muffled by darkness, or reality (Evening 20-21).Here, Stevens clearly establishes his â€Å"devotion to rea lity† (Beckett 42). But, it is not until the last few lines of the poem that Stevens demonstrates the importance of a balance between imagination and reality. In the last lines of Evening Without Angels Stevens creates the image in which imagination becomes truth. Stevens writes, â€Å"Where the voice that is in us makes a true re- / sponse† (Evening 34-35). The voice is a symbol of the poetic voice inside the poet as well as the imaginative voice that lives inside of each individual.Through his poetry Stevens uses his poetic voice as a tool to unite imagination and reality. Finally, Stevens concludes the poem by creating the juxtaposition of the sun and moon: â€Å"Where the voice that is great within us rises up, / As we stand gazing at the rounded moon† (Evening 36-37). Again Stevens attributes sun-like qualities to the imagination by giving it the motion of rising up. Then, he combines the imaginative world and reality by placing the individual in a dark sett ing, staring at the moon, which is a symbol for reality.Stevens connects the imagination to the rising of the sun in order to make the audience aware that the sun and moon, although they are opposites, do indeed complement each other. Everyday the sun rises and then it sets, allowing night to start, indicating reliance upon one another. If the sun does not rise and set the moon will not be seen. Sister M. Bernetta Quinn explains in her essay, Metamorphosis in Wallace Stevens, that Stevens’ poetry â€Å"deals with the concrete, the particular; philosophy, with the abstract† (Quinn 69).Throughout his writing, Stevens stresses that imagination and reality are both necessary components of life and poetry. He is able to come to this conclusion by the act of poetry writing, in which he incorporates metaphors and symbols as representatives of his imagination. These metaphors and symbols are grounded in concrete images and reality in order for the audience to be able to unders tand and relate to Stevens’ imagination and create their own imaginative world through his writing. Work Cited Beckett, Lucy. Wallace Stevens. New York: Cambridge UP, 1974.Print. Pearce, Roy H. â€Å"Wallace Stevens: The Life of Imagination. †Ã‚  Wallace Stevens. Ed. Marie Borriff. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1963. N. pag. Print. Quinn, Sister M. Bernetta. â€Å"Metamorphosis in Wallace Stevens. † Wallace Stevens. Ed. Marie Borriff. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1963. N. pag. Print. Stevens, Holly. Souvenirs and Prophecies: The Young Wallace Stevens. N. p. : Alfred A. Knopf, 1977. Print. Stevens, Wallace. The Collected Poems of Wallace Stevens. New York: Vintage, 1990. A Fading of the Sun & Evening Without Angels. Print.

The Contributions of Post Development Theory - 3644 Words

Introduction The world has witnessed an ongoing transformation involving the various changes regarding development approaches and classification of communities. Interestingly, this diversification of the world has started with the end of the World War II. This remarkable point indicates the first definition of ‘underdeveloped’ for the first time in the history. In Gustavo Esteva’s article, it is pointed out that dated from 1949,the concept ‘underdeveloped’ commenced to take place in literature after the expression by Truman following the Second World War. ( Esteva: 6) This was a major turning point that the communities belong to so called undeveloped part of the world have been threatened by the US hegemony which has roots from the 1940s.†¦show more content†¦These all different social systems require different approaches regarding development. The crucial point is that PD theorists usually define that the culture, changes in terms of social issues and so cietal systems, and anthropology are inseparable actors of development which are all interconnected to each other. The intrinsic beyond that is the more prominent the agenda of hegemony becomes, the greater ‘localized’ people and their cultures occupy a role in the agenda of development. (Ferguson:157) Anthropology is believed that it could pave the way for unique forms of projects regarding to development. In addition to that, they should be properly and separately engaged with the ethnographies and anthropologies. These projects play an important role in order to put emphasis on local roots and their resistance against the power of the hegemony. PD theorists mainly are the supporters of cultural relativism. They have the position supporting limited universalism as well. Conversely, this relativism is not intrinsically associated with universal issues and problems which are dealt with PD theorists as well. Whereas they aim to search for local solutions, they neglect the universality of problems. Although, mainly the issues are defined locally in terms of unique ethnographies, it should be noticed that these local problems have commenced to be universal issues concerning the various partsShow MoreRelatedDifference Between Product Revenue And Variable Cost1142 Words   |  5 Pages Introduction Background Contribution margin is one of the vital tools utilized throughout the Capsim simulation and business operations in general. Bushong and Talbolt (2001) summarizes the contribution margin ratio as the difference between product revenue and variable cost, over variable cost. 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